Malays. J. Anal. Sci. Volume 30 Number 4 (2026): 1844

 

Research Article

 

Electrochemical detection of dimethyl phthalate using an electropolymerised pyrrole-based molecularly imprinted polymer sensor on screen-printed carbon electrode

 

Chong Hua Wei1, Faizatul Shimal Mehamod2*, Nur Asyiqin Zulkefli1, Mohd Azerulazree Jamilan3, Tengku Hasnan Tengku Abdul Aziz4, Rusli Daik5, and Eka Safitri6

 

1Faculty of Science and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia

2Advanced Nano Materials (ANoMA) Research Group, Faculty of Science and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Terengganu, Malaysia

3Nutrition Unit, Nutrition, Metabolism and Cardiovascular Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, National Institute of Health, Ministry of Health Malaysia, No. 1, Jalan Setia Murni U13/52, Setia Alam, 40170 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia

4Institute of Microengineering and Nanoelectronics, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

5Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

6Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Banda Aceh 23111, Indonesia

 

*Corresponding author: fshimal@umt.edu.my

 

Received:3 February 2026; Revised: 15 June 2026; Accepted: 24 June 2026; Published: 30 August 2026

 

Abstract

Dimethyl phthalate (DMP) is an emerging contaminant commonly found in cosmetics, personal care products, and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) materials, requiring reliable electrochemical detection methods for selective analysis. Conventional DMP detection methods are often expensive, labor-intensive, and require complex instrumentation. This study presents an electropolymerised molecularly imprinted polymer (e-MIP) sensor based on a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) for selective and cost-effective DMP detection. Pyrrole was employed as the monomer, while non-imprinted polymers (e-NIPs) served as controls. Template removal using ethanolic hydrochloric acid created specific recognition sites within the polymer matrix. Characterization of the polymers was performed by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). Optimal sensor performance was achieved with five electropolymerisation cycles, 15-minute incubation time, and pH 7. The sensor exhibited a linear response to DMP concentrations ranging from 5 to 25 mM (R² = 0.9943), with a limit of detection (LOD) of 1.796 mM and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 5.44 mM. The developed e-MIP-SPCE sensor offers a promising, disposable, and low-cost platform for rapid DMP detection.

 

Keywords: dimethyl phthalate, electropolymerisation, molecularly imprinted polymer, pyrrole, screen printed carbon electrode

 

References

1.        Olkowska, E. (2024). Permeability of dimethyl phthalate through human skin models–health risk assessment. Exposure and Health, 16(2): 369-376.

2.        Fafa, S. and Zazoua, A. (2024). A new electrochemical sensor based on a screen-printed electrode modified with an ion-imprinted PEDOT for the detection and the quantification of Cd (II). Microchemical Journal, 204: 110977.

3.        Enneti, R. K., Onbattuvelli, V. P., Gulsoy, O., Kate, K. H. and Atre, S. V. (2019). Powder-binder formulation and compound manufacture in metal injection molding (MIM). Handbook of metal injection molding. Woodhead Publishing: pp. 57-88.

4.        Pereira, C., Cunha, S. C. and Fernandes, J. O. (2023). Commercial beers: A source of phthalates and di-ethylhexyl adipate. Food Chemistry: X, 19: 100768.

5.        Liu, Y., Lian, Z., Li, F., Majid, A. and Wang, J. (2021). Review on molecular imprinting technology and its application in pre-treatment and detection of marine organic pollutants. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 169: 112541.

6.        Caruso, G., Bergami, E., Singh, N. and Corsi, I. (2022). Plastic occurrence, sources, and impacts in Antarctic environment and biota. Water Biology and Security, 1(2): 100034.

7.        He, Y., Wang, Q., He, W. and Xu, F. (2019). The occurrence, composition and partitioning of phthalate esters (PAEs) in the water-suspended particulate matter (SPM) system of Lake Chaohu, China. Science of the Total Environment, 661: 285-293.

8.        U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. (1980). Ambient water quality criteria for phthalate esters. Acess from https://www.epa.gov/sites/ default/files/2019-03/documents/ambient-wqc-phthalateesters-1980.pdf [Access online October 1980].

9.        Zhao, X., Wang, R., Zhang, J., Lu, S., Guo, Z., Hu, Z., Wang, Ti., Dai, P. and Wu, H. (2023). Exploring simultaneous elimination of dimethyl phthalate and nitrogen by a novel constructed wetlands coupled with dielectric barrier discharge plasma. Chemical Engineering Journal, 452: 139666.

10.     Savoca, D., Barreca, S., Lo Coco, R., Punginelli, D., Orecchio, S. and Maccotta, A. (2023). Environmental aspect concerning phthalates contamination: Analytical approaches and assessment of biomonitoring in the aquatic environment. Environments, 10(6): 99.

11.     Pietrini, F., Iannilli, V., Passatore, L., Carloni, S., Sciacca, G., Cerasa, M. and Zacchini, M. (2022). Ecotoxicological and genotoxic effects of dimethyl phthalate (DMP) on Lemna minor L. and Spirodela polyrhiza (L.) Schleid. plants under a short-term laboratory assay. Science of the Total Environment, 806: 150972.

12.     Metcalfe, C. D., Bayen, S., Desrosiers, M., Muñoz, G., Sauvé, S. and Yargeau, V. (2022). Methods for the analysis of endocrine disrupting chemicals in selected environmental matrixes. Environmental Research, 206: 112616.

13.     Daverey, A., Dutta, K. and Sarkar, A. (2019). An overview of analytical methodologies for environmental monitoring. Tools, Techniques and Protocols for Monitoring Environmental Contaminants, 3-17.

14.     BelBruno, J. J. (2018). Molecularly imprinted polymers. Chemical Reviews, 119(1): 94-119.

15.     Li, F., Yue, S., Zhao, Z., Liu, K., Wang, P. and Zhan, S. (2024). Application of molecularly imprinted polymers in the water environmental field: A review on the detection and efficient removal of emerging contaminants. Materials Today Sustainability, 27: 100904.

16.     Cengiz, N., Guclu, G., Kelebek, H., Capanoglu, E. and Selli, S. (2022). Application of molecularly imprinted polymers for the detection of volatile and off-odor compounds in food matrices. ACS Omega, 7(18): 15258-15266.

17.     Song, B. (2023). Electrochemical sensing of monoterpene phenols in plant essential oils using a molecularly imprinted polymer dual-template sensor. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 18(12): 100381.

18.     Hu, B., Peng, L., Liang, P., Li, X., Cai, M., Liu, B., Jia, Y., Jing, Y., Li, Z. and Sun, S. (2024). Advances in molecularly imprinted polymers-based electrochemical sensors for the detection of gonadal steroid hormones. TrAC Trends in Analytical Chemistry, 171: 117485.

19.     Elugoke, S. E., Adekunle, A. S., Fayemi, O. E., Akpan, E. D., Mamba, B. B., Sherif, E. S. M. and Ebenso, E. E. (2021). Molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs) based electrochemical sensors for the determination of catecholamine neurotransmitters–Review. Electrochemical Science Advances, 1(2): e2000026.

20.     Seguro, I., Rebelo, P., Pacheco, J. G. and Delerue-Matos, C. (2022). Electropolymerized, molecularly imprinted polymer on a screen-printed electrode—a simple, fast, and disposable voltammetric sensor for trazodone. Sensors, 22(7): 2819.

21.     Parihar, A., Sharma, P., Choudhary, N. K., Khan, R. and Mostafavi, E. (2024). Internet-of-things-integrated molecularly imprinted polymer-based electrochemical nano-sensors for pesticide detection in the environment and food products. Environmental Pollution, 351: 124029.

22.     Shaabani, N., Chan, N. W. and Jemere, A. B. (2021). A molecularly imprinted sol-gel electrochemical sensor for naloxone determination. Nanomaterials, 11(3): 631.

23.     El-Sharif, H. F., Patel, S., Ndunda, E. N. and Reddy, S. M. (2022). Electrochemical detection of dioctyl phthalate using molecularly imprinted polymer modified screen-printed electrodes. Analytica Chimica Acta, 1196: 339547.

24.     Gavrilă, A. M., Stoica, E. B., Iordache, T. V. and Sârbu, A. (2022). Modern and dedicated methods for producing molecularly imprinted polymer layers in sensing applications. Applied Sciences, 12(6): 3080.

25.     Li, Y., Luo, L., Kong, Y., Li, Y., Wang, Q., Wang, M.,  Li, Y., Davenport, A. and Li, B. (2024). Recent advances in molecularly imprinted polymer-based electrochemical sensors. Biosensors and Bioelectronics, 249: 116018.

26.     Andjelković, T., Bogdanović, D., Kostić, I., Kocić, G., Nikolić, G. and Pavlović, R. (2021). Phthalates leaching from plastic food and pharmaceutical contact materials by FTIR and GC-MS. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28(24): 31380-31390.

27.     Ali, A., Zhang, N. and Santos, R. M. (2023). Mineral characterization using scanning electron microscopy (SEM): a review of the fundamentals, advancements, and research directions. Applied Sciences, 13(23): 12600.

28.     Bolat, G., Yaman, Y. T. and Abaci, S. (2019). Molecularly imprinted electrochemical impedance sensor for sensitive dibutyl phthalate (DBP) determination. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 299: 127000.

29.     Buffon, E. and Stradiotto, N. R. (2021). A molecularly imprinted polymer on reduced graphene oxide-gold nanoparticles modified screen-printed electrode for selective determination of ferulic acid in orange peels. Microchemical Journal, 167: 106339.

30.     Karthika, P., Shanmuganathan, S. and Viswanathan, S. (2022). Electrochemical sensor for picric acid by using molecularly imprinted polymer and reduced graphene oxide modified pencil graphite electrode. Proceedings of the Indian National Science Academy, 88(3): 263-276.

31.     Couto, R. A., Costa, S. S., Mounssef Jr, B., Pacheco, J. G., Fernandes, E., Carvalho, F., Rodrigues, C. M., Delerue-Matos, C., Braga, A. A., Goncalves, L. M. and Quinaz, M. B. (2019). Electrochemical sensing of ecstasy with electropolymerized molecularly imprinted poly (o-phenylenediamine) polymer on the surface of disposable screen-printed carbon electrodes. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 290: 378-386.

32.     Del Sole, R., Stomeo, T. and Mergola, L. (2023). Disposable Molecularly Imprinted Polymer-Modified Screen-Printed Electrodes for Rapid Electrochemical Detection of l-Kynurenine in Human Urine. Polymers, 16(1): 3.

33.     Ermiş, N. and Tınkılıç, N. (2018). Preparation of molecularly imprınted polypyrrole modified gold electrode for determination of tyrosine in biological samples. International Journal of Electrochemical Science, 13(3): 2286-2298.

34.     González-Sánchez, M. I., Gómez-Monedero, B., Agrisuelas, J., Iniesta, J. and Valero, E. (2018). Highly activated screen-printed carbon electrodes by electrochemical treatment with hydrogen peroxide. Electrochemistry Communications, 91: 36-40.

35.     Hrichi, H., Monser, L. and Adhoum, N. (2019). Selective electrochemical determination of etoposide using a molecularly imprinted overoxidized polypyrrole coated glassy carbon electrode. International Journal of Electrochemistry, 2019(1): 5394235.

36.     Javed, M. R., Salman, M., Tariq, A., Tawab, A., Zahoor, M. K., Naheed, S., Shahid, M., Ijaz, A. and Ali, H. (2022). The antibacterial and larvicidal potential of bis-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate from Lactiplantibacillus plantarum. Molecules, 27(21): 7220.

37.     Nageswari, G., George, G., Ramalingam, S. and Govindarajan, M. (2019). Molecular analyses using FT-IR, FT-Raman and UV spectral investigation; quantum chemical calculations of dimethyl phthalate. Journal of Molecular Structure, 1195: 331-343.

38.     Dong, H., Li, C. M., Zhang, Y. F., Cao, X. D. and Gan, Y. (2007). Screen-printed microfluidic device for electrochemical immunoassay. Lab on a Chip, 7(12): 1752-1758.

39.     El-Beshlawy, M. M., Abdel-Haleem, F. M., Kamel, A. H. and Barhoum, A. (2022). Screen-printed sensors coated with polyaniline/molecularly imprinted polymer membranes for the potentiometric determination of 2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid herbicide in wastewater and agricultural soil. Chemosensors, 11(1): 3.

40.     Golba, S. and Loskot, J. (2023). The alphabet of nanostructured polypyrrole. Materials, 16(22): 7069.

41.     Rebelo, P., Pacheco, J. G., Voroshylova, I. V., Melo, A., Cordeiro, M. N. D. and  Delerue-Matos, C. (2022). A simple electrochemical detection of atorvastatin based on disposable screen-printed carbon electrodes modified by molecularly imprinted polymer: Experiment and simulation. Analytica Chimica Acta, 1194: 339410.

42.     Motia, S., Bouchikhi, B., Llobet, E. and El Bari, N. (2020). Synthesis and characterization of a highly sensitive and selective electrochemical sensor based on molecularly imprinted polymer with gold nanoparticles modified screen-printed electrode for glycerol determination in wastewater. Talanta, 216: 120953.

43.     Manickam, P., Pasha, S. K., Snipes, S. A. and Bhansali, S. (2017). A reusable electrochemical biosensor for monitoring of small molecules (cortisol) using molecularly imprinted polymers. Journal of the Electrochemical Society, 164(2): B54-B59.

44.     Couto, R. A., Mounssef Jr, B., Carvalho, F., Rodrigues, C. M., Braga, A. A., Aldous, L., Goncalves, L. M. and Quinaz, M. B. (2020). Methylone screening with electropolymerized molecularly imprinted polymer on screen-printed electrodes. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 316: 128133.

45.     Zhang, C., Zhao, F., She, Y., Hong, S., Cao, X., Zheng, L., Wang, S., Li, T., Wang, M., Jin, M. and Wang, J. (2019). A disposable molecularly imprinted sensor based on Graphe@ AuNPs modified screen-printed electrode for highly selective and sensitive detection of cyhexatin in pear samples. Sensors and Actuators B: Chemical, 284: 13-22.

46.     Huang, J., Nkrumah, P. N., Li, Y. and Appiah-Sefah, G. (2012). Chemical behavior of phthalates under abiotic conditions in landfills. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 224: 39-52.

47.     Ashakirin, S. N. Zaid, M. H. M., Haniff, M. A. S. M., Masood, A., and Wee, M. M. R. (2023). Sensitive electrochemical detection of creatinine based on electrodeposited molecular imprinting polymer modified screen printed carbon electrode. Measurement, 210: 112502.