Malays. J. Anal. Sci. Volume 30 Number 4 (2026): 1808

 

Research Article

 

Sustainable paper-based MIP-LIG sensor for antibiotic detection in milk

 

Muhammad Afiq Abdul Ghani1,2, Muhammad Rizwan Mohamad Noor2, Adilah Mohamed Nageib3, Anis Nurashikin Nordin1,2*, Rosminazuin Ab Rahim1,2, and Amanatuzzakiah Abdul Halim3

 

1VLSI-MEMS Research Unit, International Islamic University Malaysia, 53100, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

2Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Kulliyyah of Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia, 53100, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

3Department of Chemical Engineering and Sustainability, Kulliyyah of Engineering, International Islamic University Malaysia, 53100, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

 

*Corresponding author: anisnn@iium.edu.my

 

Received: 17 December 2025; Revised: 16 June 2026; Accepted: 24 June 2026; Published: 30 August 2026

 

This article was presented at the 2025 Asiasense Conference, held on September 10–11, 2025. The event was organized by the SENSOR Malaysia, with Associate Professor Dr. Kavirajaa Pandian A/L Sambasevam serving as Guest Editor.

 

Abstract

Extensive use of sulfamethoxazole (SMX) in dairy farming leads to pollution of the environment and contamination of dairy products with antibiotic residues. Regular antibiotic testing in milk using electrochemical sensors can help to combat antimicrobial resistance and protect human health. To mitigate electronic waste, this green technology integrates Laser-Induced Graphene (LIG) and Molecularly Imprinted Polymers (MIPs) on a paper-based electrochemical sensor. The MIPs provide highly specific recognition cavities tailored for SMX. The LIG platform, manufactured on paper, provides a biodegradable, highly conductive, porous three-dimensional transducer that facilitates rapid electron transfer and signal amplification alternative to plastic. To fabricate the transducer, the paper substrate was pre-treated with a sodium tetraborate fire retardant, followed by direct laser scribing using a 660 mW diode laser to generate a robust, porous graphene network. Specific recognition cavities were engineered by synthesising MIPs via polymerisation at 60°C using SMX as the template. The sensor was assembled by drop-casting the purified MIP microparticles directly onto the working electrode. Electrochemical measurements were performed using differential pulse voltammetry (DPV) in 5 mM ferrocyanide with 0.1 M KCl. The paper-based MIP–LIG sensor exhibited linearity in the concentration range of 0.2–0.7 µM, with a sensitivity of 43.64 µA/µM, a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.11 µM, and a limit of quantification (LOQ) of 0.33 µM. When tested in spiked milk samples, the sensor maintained a linear response with a sensitivity of 11.11 µA/µM and an LOD of 0.36 µM, demonstrating reliable performance in complex matrices. This work introduces a sustainable, low-cost, and high-performance sensing platform that bridges material innovation and public health, enabling rapid, on-site monitoring of antibiotic residues in food safety applications.

 

Keywords: electrochemical, paper, sulfamethoxazole, molecularly imprinted polymers, laser-induced graphene

 

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