Malays. J. Anal. Sci. Volume 30 Number 4 (2026): 1711

 

Research Article

                                                                     

Synthesis and characterization of calcium-based carbon catalyst for biodiesel production from PFAD

 

Sumayya Kabir Masokano1*, Nurun Najwa Ruslan1, and Zuan Azhary Mohd Salleh2

 

1Faculty of Applied Sciences and Technology, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Pagoh Higher Education Hub, 86400 Pagoh, Johor, Malaysia

2Faculty of Technical and Vocational Education, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Pagoh Higher Education Hub, 86400 Pagoh, Johor, Malaysia

  

*Corresponding author: nurunajwa@uthm.edu.my

 

Received: 12 October 2025; Revised: 6 January 2026; Accepted: 22 February 2026; Published: 30 August 2026

 

Abstract

This study developed a heterogeneous catalyst (CaO) and activated carbon (AC) support generated from biomass waste (coconut shells) to improve biodiesel synthesis using palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). Calcium-based carbon catalysts (CaO/CS-ACs) were synthesized from coconut shell biomass through carbonization of the coconut shell, chemical activation with potassium hydroxide (KOH), and calcium incorporation via wet impregnation. The resulting catalysts were characterised using Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis, Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray (SEM-EDX), X-ray diffraction (XRD),  Fourier Transform Infra-Red (FT-IR), and basicity analysis. Among the synthesized catalysts, namely 10 wt% CaO/CS-AC, 15 wt% CaO/CS-AC,  20 wt% CaO/CS-AC and 25 wt% CaO/CS-AC, the 15 wt% CaO/CS-AC catalyst showed the best catalytic performance. Optimally, the esterification and transesterification reactions yielded a biodiesel production of 96.8% at a 10:1 methanol-to-PFAD molar ratio,  with a catalyst dosage of 6 wt%, a temperature of 65 °C, and a 2 hours reaction duration. In addition, it exhibited greater reusability over five reaction cycles than pure CaO, owing to the robustness of the activated carbon and calcium sites. The obtained biodiesel aligns with the standards set by EN 14214, confirming the effectiveness of this waste-derived catalyst approach for sustainable biodiesel synthesis using low-grade feedstock.

 

Keywords: biodiesel, calcium oxide, activated carbon, palm fatty acid distillate

 

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