Malays. J. Anal. Sci. Volume 29 Number 6 (2025): 1573

 

Review Article

 

Subcritical water extraction for phytochemicals from vegetables and vegetable waste: a review of recent advances

Nurul Faezawaty Jamaludin1,3, Rosnah Shamsudin1*, Muhammad Hazwan Hamzah2, Mohd Zuhair Mohd Nor1, Muhamad Yusuf Hasan3

 

1Department of Process and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia 43400 Serdang, Selangor,

2SMART Farming Technology Research Centre, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

3Section of Food Engineering Technology, Universiti Kuala Lumpur Malaysian Institute of Chemical and Bioengineering Technology, Alor Gajah, 78000, Melaka, Malaysia

 

*Corresponding author: rosnahs@upm.edu.my

 

Received: 26 May 2025; Revised: 20 August 2025; Accepted: 24 September 2025; Published: 28 December 2025

 

This article was presented at the National Agricultural and Food Engineering Convention (NAFEC 2025), held on May 6–7, 2025. The event was organized by the Malaysian Society of Agricultural and Food Engineers, with Muhammad Hazwan Hamzah serving as Guest Editor.

 

Abstract

Subcritical Water Extraction (SWE) has emerged as an innovative and sustainable technique for extracting valuable phytochemicals from vegetables. Under subcritical water conditions, by which operating water at elevated temperatures and pressures below its critical point, SWE enhances its ability to dissolve a broad spectrum of bioactive compounds, including polar substances like glucosinolates and phenolic acids, as well as nonpolar compounds such as flavonoids and carotenoids. Compared to conventional solvent-based methods, this green extraction approach has the benefit of higher efficiency in extraction and reduced environmental impact, along with lower capital costs. SWE has been successfully applied to recover important phytochemicals, such as sulforaphane from broccoli and quercetin from kale. Extraction yields and phytochemical stability are influenced by factors including types of plant, temperature, pressure, solid-to-solvent ratio, extraction time, and pH conditions. The valourisation of vegetable waste materials like carrot peels, cauliflower stems make SWE align towards circular economy principles. Despite scaling up challenges, as generally seen in equipment design and energy consumption, SWE has a huge potential for broad industrial use in areas of food, nutraceutical, pharmaceutical and cosmetic. This review focuses on recent advances, the synergistic effects, environmental and economic merits of the SWE technology and is followed by its prospects in this field.

 

Keywords: subcritical water extraction, phytochemicals, vegetables, green extraction

 

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