Optimisation studies and synthesis of a surface-modified-Samanea saman-based carbon adsorbent with copper ions for gliclazide removal

Malays. J. Anal. Sci. Volume 29 Number 4 (2025): 1561

Research Article

Optimisation studies and synthesis of a surface-modified-Samanea saman-based carbon adsorbent with copper ions for gliclazide removal

Mohd Raziff Mat Hasan, Erniza Mohd Johan Jaya, and Mohd Azmier Ahmad*

School of Chemical Engineering, Engineering Campus, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia

^*Corresponding author: chazmier@usm.my

Received: 6 May 2025; Revised: 4 August 2025; Accepted: 5 August 2025; Published: 25 August 2025

Abstract

This study investigates the potential of copper (Cu²⁺)-modified Samanea saman-derived carbon adsorbent (Cu²⁺-SSAC) for the removal of gliclazide (GLI), a pharmaceutical contaminant, from aqueous solutions. The pristine SSAC exhibited an adsorption capacity of 50.52 mg/g, which significantly increased to 71.69 mg/g following Cu²⁺ ion modification representing a 41.90% enhancement in adsorption efficiency. This improvement is attributed to the increased number of active sites and the enhanced surface properties resulting from Cu²⁺ incorporation. The Cu²⁺-SSAC exhibited a Brunauer–Emmett–Teller surface area (BET-SA) of 752.25 m²/g, a mesoporous surface area (MESO-SA) of 550.85 m²/g, a total pore volume (TPV) of 0.3074 cm³/g, and an average pore diameter of 2.43 nm. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis revealed a notable development of surface pores in Cu²⁺-SSAC compared to the precursor material, highlighting the effectiveness of the carbonisation and activation processes employed. Optimisation using response surface methodology (RSM) determined the ideal conditions as an activation temperature of 587 °C, an activation time of 1.09 h, and a Cu²⁺ ion impregnation ratio (IR) of 0.50 g/g. Under these conditions, the predicted GLI adsorption capacity and Cu²⁺-SSAC yield were 70.13 mg/g and 32.33%, respectively. These values closely matched the experimental results of 71.69 mg/g and 33.42%, with low relative errors of 2.17% and 3.26%. Isotherm analysis indicated that GLI adsorption onto Cu²⁺-SSAC followed the Langmuir model, with a maximum adsorption capacity (Qₘ) of 109.21 mg/g. The Freundlich heterogeneity factor (n_F) was 1.73, shows a favourable adsorption behaviour. These findings demonstrate the practical potential of Cu²⁺-SSAC as a cost-effective and sustainable adsorbent for mitigating pharmaceutical pollutants in wastewater treatment applications.

Keywords: adsorption process, surface modification, activated carbon, optimisation, isotherm

References

1. Zaini, Y.M.M., Purba, L.D.A., Abdullah, N., Yuzir, A., Iwamoto, K., and Mohamad, S.E. (2022). Removals of atenolol, gliclazide and prazosin using sequencing batch reactor. Materials Today: Proceedings, 65: 3007-3014.

2. Mohamad, F.M.Y., Abdullah, A.Z., and Ahmad, M.A. (2024). Amoxicillin adsorption from aqueous solution by Cu(II) modified lemon peel based activated carbon: Mass transfer simulation, surface area prediction and F-test on isotherm and kinetic models. Powder Technology, 438.

3. Sahin, I., Bakiner, O., Demir, T., Sari, R., and Atmaca, A. (2024). Current position of gliclazide and sulfonylureas in the contemporary treatment paradigm for type 2 diabetes: A scoping review. Diabetes Therapy, 15(8): 1687-1716.

4. Khir, N.H.M., Salleh, N.F.M., Ghafar, N.A., Shukri, N.M., and Jusoh, R. (2025). Preparation and characterization of modified rambutan peels for the removal of chromium(VI) and nickel(II) from aqueous solution: Environmental impact and optimization Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 29(1): 1292.

5. Ramlee, D.A., Nordin, N.A., Rahman, N.A., and Bahruji, H. (2024). Removal of acetaminophen by using electrospun pan/sago lignin-based activated carbon nanofibers. Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 28(6): 1442-1457.

6. Gunasekaran, S., Liu, A.J.X., and Ng, S.L. (2024). Activated carbon/iron oxide composites with different weight ratios for acid orange 7 removal. Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 28(6): 1359-1373.

7. Firdaus, M. Y. M., Rashid, M. M., Alam, M. M., and Ahmad, M. A. (2025). Copper-modified surface of orange peel-derived activated carbon for amoxicillin removal: Mass transfer simulation, attraction mechanism, and regeneration studies. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, 2025: 1-23.

8. Hatta, N.S.M., Farihahusnah, H., Ti, G.L., and Kheireddine, A.M. (2024). Characterisation of egg white-impregnated activated carbon for CO₂ adsorption application. Malaysian Journal of Science, 43: 20-25.

9. Yusop, M.F.M., Ahmad, M.A., Rosli, N.A., Gonawan, F.N., and Abdullah, S.J. (2021). Scavenging malachite green dye from aqueous solution using durian peel based activated carbon. Malaysian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Sciences, 17(1): 95-103.

10. Saputra, D.A., Pratoto, A., Rahman, M.F., and Kodama, A. (2024). The effect of chemical activation agents and activation temperature on the pore structure of rice husk-derived activated carbon. Malaysian Journal of Science, 43(Sp1): 1-7.

11. Ahammad, N. A., Yusop, M. F. M., Mohd Din, A. T., and Ahmad, M. A. (2021). Preparation of alpinia galanga stem based activated carbon via single-step microwave irradiation for cationic dye removal. Sains Malaysiana, 50(8): 2251-2269.

12. Ahmad, M. A., Yusop, M. F. M., Awang, S., Yahaya, N. K. E. M., Rasyid, M. A. and Hassan, H. (2021). Carbonization of sludge biomass of water treatment plant using continuous screw type conveyer pyrolyzer for methylene blue removal. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 765: 012112.

13. Daouda, M.M.A., Akowanou, A.V.O., Mahunon, S.E.R., Adjinda, C.K., Aina, M.P., and Drogui, P. (2021). Optimal removal of diclofenac and amoxicillin by activated carbon prepared from coconut shell through response surface methodology. South African Journal of Chemical Engineering. 38(1): 78-89.

14. Yusop, M.F.M., Baharudin, M.H., Rashid, M.M., Alam, M.M., and Ahmad, M.A. (2025). Amoxicillin adsorption onto oil palm trunk-derived activated carbon: synthesis optimization, modelling of mass transfer and ultrasonic regeneration. Journal of Chemical Technology & Biotechnology, 100(6): 1310-1327.

15. Mohamad, F.M.Y., Rashid, M.M., Alam, M.M., and Ahmad, M.A. (2025). Copper metal-functionalized carbon from rattan waste via microwave pyrolysis for enhanced chloramphenicol removal: Optimization and F-test study. Particuology, 100: 196-213.

16. Niam, A.C., Fenelon, E., Ningsih, E., Mirzayanti, Y.W., Kristanti, E., and Naushad, M. (2022). High-efficiency adsorption of hexavalent chromium from aqueous solution by samanea saman activated carbon. Adsorption Science & Technology, 2022: 8960379.

17. Ni'am, A.C., Suhar, M., Fenelon, E., and Ponnusamy, S.K. (2023). Characterization and potential of Samanea saman-activated carbon on adsorption of copper from an aqueous solution. Adsorption Science & Technology, 2023: 1911596.

18. Naji, S.Z. and Tye, C.T. (2022). A review of the synthesis of activated carbon for biodiesel production: Precursor, preparation, and modification. Energy Conversion and Management: X. 13: 100152.

19. Almahbashi, N.M.Y., Kutty, S.R.M., Ayoub, M., Noor, A., Salihi, I.U., Al-Nini, A., Jagaba, A.H., Aldhawi, B.N.S., and Ghaleb, A.A.S. (2021). Optimization of preparation conditions of sewage sludge based activated carbon. Ain Shams Engineering Journal, 12(2): 1175-1182.

20. Rosli, N.A., Ahmad, M.A., and Noh, T.U. (2023). Nature's waste turned savior: Optimizing pineapple peel–based activated carbon for effective Remazol Brilliant Violet dye adsorption using response surface methodology. Inorganic Chemistry Communications, 153: 110844.

21. Langmuir, I. (1918). The adsorption of gases on plane surfaces of glass, mica and platinum. Journal of the American Chemical Society. 40(9): 1361-1403.

22. Freundlich, H. (1906). Over the adsorption in solution. Journal of Physical Chemistry, 57(385471): 1100-1107.

23. Tempkin, M. and Pyzhev, V. (1940). Kinetics of ammonia synthesis on promoted iron catalyst. Acta Physicochimica URSS, 12(1): 327.

24. Mohamad, F.M.Y., Abdullah, A.Z., and Ahmad, M.A. (2023). Adsorption of remazol brilliant blue R dye onto jackfruit peel based activated carbon: Optimization and simulation for mass transfer and surface area prediction. Inorganic Chemistry Communications, 158: 117112.

25. Beyan, S.M., Prabhu, S.V., Sissay, T.T., and Getahun, A.A. (2021). Sugarcane bagasse based activated carbon preparation and its adsorption efficacy on removal of BOD and COD from textile effluents: RSM based modeling, optimization and kinetic aspects. Bioresource Technology Reports, 14: 100664.

26. Yu, H., Mikšík, F., Thu, K., and Miyazaki, T. (2024). Characterization and optimization of pore structure and water adsorption capacity in pinecone-derived activated carbon by steam activation. Powder Technology, 431: 119084.

27. Weldekidan, H., Patel, H., Mohanty, A., and Misra, M. (2024). Synthesis of porous and activated carbon from lemon peel waste for CO₂adsorption. Carbon Capture Science & Technology, 10: 100149.

28. Firdaus, M.Y.M., Nasran, M.N.K., Ridzuan, Z., Zuhairi, A.A., and Azmier, M.A. (2023). Mass transfer simulation on remazol brilliant blue R dye adsorption by optimized teak wood Based activated carbon. Arabian Journal of Chemistry, 16(6): 104780.

29. Njewa, J.B., Vunain, E., and Biswick, T. (2022). Synthesis and characterization of activated carbons prepared from agro-wastes by chemical activation. Journal of Chemistry, 2022(1): 9975444.

30. Yusop, M.F.M., Jaya, E.M.J., Din, A.T.M., Bello, O.S., and Ahmad, M.A. (2022). Single-stage optimized microwave-induced activated carbon from coconut shell for cadmium adsorption. Chemical Engineering & Technology, 45(11): 1943-1951.

31. Firdaus, M.Y.M., Rashid, M.M., Alam, M.M., and Ahmad, M.A. (2025). Enhanced Cd²⁺ removal via deprotonated-mango trunk functionalized carbon: Optimization and F-test for linear and non-linear isotherm and kinetic models. Chemical Engineering Research and Design, 220: 96-116.

32. Wei, X., Huang, S., Yang, J., Liu, P., Li, X., Wu, Y., and Wu, S. (2023). Adsorption of phenol from aqueous solution on activated carbons prepared from antibiotic mycelial residues and traditional biomass. Fuel Processing Technology, 242: 107663.

33. Aziz, A., Yusop, M.F.M., and Ahmad, M.A. (2024). Harnessing microwave energy to transform Nephelium lappaceum L. peel into activated carbon for chloramphenicol eradication in aqueous solutions. Materials Chemistry and Physics, 318: 129311.

34. Çavuşoğlu, F.C. (2023). Gliclazide removal efficiency of carbon-based magnetic materials: Isotherm and kinetic studies. Chemical Engineering & Technology, 46(4): 635-643.