Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, Vol 28 No 5 (2024): 1128 - 1149

HARNESSING OF PEANUT SHELL WASTE-DERIVED ACTIVATED CARBON FOR EFFICIENT MAGNETIC SOLID PHASE EXTRACTION OF CALCIUM CHANNEL BLOCKERS DRUGS FROM WATER

(Memanfaatkan Karbon Teraktif dari Sisa Kulit Kacang Tanah untuk Pengekstrakan Fasa Pepejal Magnetik yang Berkesan terhadap Dadah Penyekat Saluran Kalsium daripada Air)

Fatin Nur Umirah Sukardan¹, Farahdina Man², Usman Armayau^1,3, Saw Hong Loh¹, Marinah Mohd Ariffin¹,

and Wan Mohd Afiq Wan Mohd Khalik^1,4

¹Faculty of Science and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, 21030 Kuala Nerus, Malaysia

²Biomics Solution Sdn Bhd, No. 22A-1, Jalan Bangi Avenue 1/8, Taman Bangi Avenue, 43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

³Faculty of Applied Sciences, Al-Qalam University Katsina, Katsina, Nigeria

⁴Water Analysis Research Centre, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia

^*Corresponding author: wan.afiq@umt.edu.my

Received: 7 July 2024; Accepted: 25 September 2024; Published: 27 October 2024

Abstract

Amlodipine and nifedipine, both widely used calcium channel blockers (CCBs) for hypertension treatment, have emerged as environmental contaminants in water sources such as lakes, rivers, and oceans due to inadequate effluent treatment. In this study, activated carbon derived from peanut shell waste was utilized in magnetic solid-phase extraction (m-SPE) to determine the presence of amlodipine and nifedipine in water samples. A Plackett-Burman and central composite design were employed to assess the effects of seven parameters: pH, temperature, activated carbon weight, stirring speed, contact time, volume of water sample and desorption solvent. Optimal m-SPE conditions were established as follows: pH 11, water temperature 90°C, stirring speed 500 rpm, contact time 11 minutes, and 1.25 g of activated carbon. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with a diode array detector was used for the final quantification of the target drugs. The extraction method demonstrated excellent linearity (r² = 0.994) and low limits of detection (LOD) and quantification (LOQ), with LODs of 1.04 ng/mL for amlodipine and 1.13 ng/mL for nifedipine, and LOQs of 3.40 ng/mL for amlodipine and 3.48 ng/mL for nifedipine. Recovery rates ranged from 80% to 98% across three concentration levels. Repeatability analysis indicated satisfactory intra-day and inter-day relative standard deviation below 6%. Regeneration studies on adsorbent performance showed recovery loss rates below 15% after four cycles. Additionally, the m-SPE method was environmentally sustainable, with an overall AGREEnness score of 0.71, Blue Applicability Grade Index (67.5), and Sample Preparation Metric Sustainability (7.47) underscoring its green credentials.

Keywords: greenness profile, magnetic adsorbent, extraction, pharmaceutically active compounds

Abstrak

Amlodipine dan nifedipine, kedua-duanya penghalang saluran kalsium (CCBs) yang digunakan secara meluas untuk rawatan hipertensi, telah muncul sebagai pencemar alam sekitar dalam sumber air seperti tasik, sungai, dan lautan akibat rawatan efluen yang tidak mencukupi. Dalam kajian ini, karbon teraktif yang berasal dari sisa kulit kacang tanah digunakan dalam pengekstrakan fasa pepejal magnetik (m-SPE) untuk menentukan kehadiran amlodipine dan nifedipine dalam sampel air. Rekabentuk Plackett-Burman dan komposit berpusat digunakan untuk menilai kesan tujuh parameter: pH, suhu, berat karbon teraktif, kelajuan pengacauan, masa sentuh, isi padu sampel air dan pelarut nyahjerapan. Keadaan m-SPE yang optimum ditetapkan seperti berikut: pH 11, suhu air 90°C, kelajuan pengacauan 500 rpm, masa sentuh 11 minit, dan 1.25 g karbon teraktif. Kromatografi cecair prestasi tinggi (HPLC) dengan detektor diod tatasusunan digunakan untuk pengkuantitian akhir ubat-ubatan tersebut. Kaedah pengekstrakan menunjukkan kelinearan yang cemerlang (r² = 0.994) dan had pengesanan (LOD) serta had pengkuantitian (LOQ) yang rendah, dengan LOD masing-masing 1.04 ng/mL untuk amlodipine dan 1.13 ng/mL untuk nifedipine, serta LOQ masing-masing 3.40 ng/mL untuk amlodipine dan 3.48 ng/mL untuk nifedipine. Kadar perolehan semula antara 92% hingga 98% di tiga tahap kepekatan. Analisis kebolehulangan menunjukkan sisihan piawai relatif intra-hari dan antara-hari yang memuaskan di bawah 6%. Kajian penggunaan semula terhadap prestasi penjerap menunjukkan kadar kehilangan perolehan semula di bawah 15% selepas empat kitaran. Selain itu, kaedah m-SPE adalah mampan dari segi alam sekitar, dengan skor keseluruhan AGREEnness 0.71, Indeks Gred Ketergunaan Biru (67.5), dan Kelestarian Metrik Penyediaan Sampel (7.47) menekankan kelayakan hijau kaedah ini.

Kata kunci: profil kehijauan, penjerap magnetik, pengekstrakan, sebatian farmaseutikal aktif

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