Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, Vol 28 No 3 (2024): 569 - 585

MICROPLASTIC POLLUTION IN MALAYSIA: STATUS AND CHALLENGES – A BRIEF OVERVIEW

(Pencemaran Mikroplastik di Malaysia: Status dan Cabaran – Suatu Tinjauan Ringkas)

Nurul Shahfiza Noor^1,2, Noorfatimah Yahaya^1,2, Nur Nadhirah Mohamad Zain^1,2, Nik Nur Syazni Nik Mohamed Kamal^1,2, Mohd Syahir Mansor^2,3, Mohd Yusmaidie Aziz^1,2, and Maisarah Nasution Waras^1,2*

¹Department of Toxicology, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute (AMDI), Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bertam, 13200 Kepala Batas, Penang, Malaysia

²Advanced Management Liver Malignancies Research (Liver-ENRICH) Program, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute (AMDI), Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bertam, 13200 Kepala Batas, Penang, Malaysia

³Biomedical Imaging Department, Advanced Medical and Dental Institute (AMDI), Universiti Sains Malaysia, Bertam, 13200 Kepala Batas, Penang, Malaysia

^*Corresponding author: maisarah.waras@usm.my

Received: 3 April 2024; Accepted: 15 May 2024; Published: 29 June 2024

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) are widespread and infiltrate the environment through unregulated use in diverse industrial processes such as the manufacturing of cleaning products, cosmetics, fertilizers, and pharmaceuticals, as well as from the degradation of larger plastic items. Due to this ubiquitous nature, combined with the fact that MPs possess the capacity for biomagnification within the food chain, MPs may constitute a major threat to human health. Hence, the scientific community and regulatory authorities are increasingly focusing their attention on this issue, leading to continuous developments in both legislation and the scientific literature concerning MPs. The review aims to provide an overview of the state-of-the-art occurrences of MPs, identification, detection, and quantification of MPs, degradation of MPs, and health effects of MPs from the perspective of Malaysia. A brief overview of the latest scientific research and recent developments on MPs (until the year 2024) will provide insights into the current understanding of MPs and their health implications. Furthermore, this review will serve as a valuable reference for further studies related to MPs in Malaysia and could help in informing future policy decisions.

Keywords: Microplastic, emerging contaminants, occurrence, analytical methods, degradation

Abstrak

Mikroplastik (MPs) adalah sebaran meluas dan meresap ke dalam alam sekitar melalui penggunaan yang tidak terkawal dalam pelbagai proses industri seperti pengilangan produk pembersihan, kosmetik, baja, dan farmaseutikal, serta daripada peluruhan bahan plastik yang lebih besar. Disebabkan sifatnya yang meluas ini, serta hakikat bahawa MPs mempunyai kapasiti untuk biomagnifikasi dalam rantaian makanan, MPs boleh menjadi ancaman besar kepada kesihatan manusia. Oleh itu, komuniti saintifik dan pihak berkuasa bagi pengawalan semakin memberi tumpuan kepada isu ini, yang membawa kepada perkembangan berterusan dalam perundangan dan literatur saintifik mengenai MPs. Tinjauan ini bertujuan untuk memberikan gambaran keseluruhan tentang kejadian MPs, pengenalpastian, pengesanan, dan pengukuran MPs, degradasi MPs, dan kesan kesihatan MPs dari perspektif Malaysia. Gambaran ringkas tentang penyelidikan saintifik terkini dan perkembangan terkini berkaitan dengan MPs (sehingga tahun 2024) akan memberikan pemahaman semasa tentang MPs dan implikasinya kepada kesihatan. Selain itu, tinjauan ini boleh dijadikan sebagai rujukan yang berharga untuk kajian lanjutan berkaitan dengan MPs di Malaysia dan boleh membantu dalam membentuk keputusan dasar pada masa akan datang.

Kata kunci: mikroplastik, pencemar baharu, kemunculan, kaedah analisis, degradasi

References

1. Smith, M., Love, D. C., Rochman, C. M., and Neff, R. A. (2018). Microplastics in seafood and the implications for human health. Current Environmental Health Reports, 5(3): 375-386.

2. Andrady, A. L. (2017). The plastic in microplastics: A review. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 119(1): 12-22.

3. Horton, A. A., Walton, A., Spurgeon, D. J., Lahive, E., and Svendsen, C. (2017). Microplastics in freshwater and terrestrial environments: Evaluating the current understanding to identify the knowledge gaps and future research priorities. Science of the Total Environment, 586: 127-141.

4. Shim, W. J., Hong, S. H., and Eo, S. (2018). Marine microplastics: Abundance, distribution, and composition. In E. Zeng, (Ed.). Microplastics contamination in aquatic environments: An emerging matter of environmental urgency (pp. 1–26). Elsevier.

5. Ivar do Sul, J. A., Costa, M. F., and Fillmann, G. (2014). Microplastics in the Pelagic environment around oceanic islands of the Western Tropical Atlantic Ocean. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 225(7): 2004.

6. Landrigan, P. J., Stegeman, J. J., Fleming, L. E., Allemand, D., Anderson, D. M., Backer, L. C., Brucker-Davis, F., Chevalier, N., Corra, L., Czerucka, D., Bottein, M.-Y. D., Demeneix, B., Depledge, M., Deheyn, D. D., Dorman, C. J., Fénichel, P., Fisher, S., Gaill, F., Galgani, F., … Rampal, P. (2020). Human health and ocean pollution. Annals of Global Health, 86(1): 151.

7. MESTECC (2018). Malaysia’s Roadmap Towards Zero Single-Use Plastics 2018-2030.

8. Moh, Y. C., and Abd Manaf, L. (2014). Overview of household solid waste recycling policy status and challenges in Malaysia. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 82: 50-61.

9. The Star (2021, March 16). Tackling increasing plastics pollution in Malaysia. The Star.

10. Ma, Z., Ibrahim, Y. S., and Lee, Y. (2020). Microplastic pollution and health and relevance to the Malaysia’s roadmap to zero single-use plastics 2018-2030. Malaysian Journal Medicine Sciences, 27(3): 1-6.

11. Meijer, L. J. J., Van Emmerik, T., Van Der Ent, R., Schmidt, C., and Lebreton, L. (2021). More than 1000 rivers account for 80% of global riverine plastic emissions into the ocean. Science Advances, 7(18): eaaz5803.

12. Adegoke, K. A., Adu, F. A., Oyebamiji, A. K., Bamisaye, A., Adigun, R. A., Olasoji, S. O., and Ogunjinmi, O. E. (2023). Microplastics toxicity, detection, and removal from water/wastewater. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 187: 114546.

13. Okoye, C. O., Addey, C. I., Oderinde, O., Okoro, J. O., Uwamungu, J. Y., Ikechukwu, C. K., Okeke, E. S., Ejeromedoghene, O., and Odii, E. C. (2022). Toxic chemicals and persistent organic pollutants associated with micro-and nanoplastics pollution. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances, 11: 100310.

14. Jin, Y., Xia, J., Pan, Z., Yang, J., Wang, W., and Fu, Z. (2018). Polystyrene microplastics induce microbiota dysbiosis and inflammation in the gut of adult zebrafish. Environmental Pollution, 235: 322-329.

15. Yang, C. Z., Yaniger, S. I., Jordan, V. C., Klein, D. J., and Bittner, G. D. (2011). Most plastic products release estrogenic chemicals: A potential health problem that can be solved. Environmental Health Perspectives, 119(7): 989-996.

16. Rouillon, M., and Taylor, M. P. (2016). Can field portable x-ray fluorescence (pXRF) produce high quality data for application in environmental contamination research? Environmental Pollution, 214: 255-264.

17. Lambert, S., and Wagner, M. (2016). Characterisation of nanoplastics during the degradation of polystyrene. Chemosphere, 145: 265-268.

18. El Hadri, H., Gigault, J., Maxit, B., Grassl, B., and Reynaud, S. (2020). Nanoplastic from mechanically degraded primary and secondary microplastics for environmental assessments. NanoImpact, 17(10): 100206.

19. Avio, C. G., Gorbi, S., and Regoli, F. (2017). Plastics and microplastics in the oceans: From emerging pollutants to emerged threat. Marine Environmental Research, 128: 2-11.

20. Au, S. Y., Bruce, T. F., Bridges, W. C., and Klaine, S. J. (2015). Responses of Hyalella azteca to acute and chronic microplastic exposures. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 34(11): 2564-2572.

21. Crawford, C. B., and Quinn, B. (2017). Plastic production, waste and legislation in C. B. Crawford & B. B. T.-M. P. Quinn (Eds.), microplastics pollutants (pp. 39–56). Elsevier.

22. Ashrafy, A., Liza, A. A., Islam, M. N., Billah, M. M., Arafat, S. T., Rahman, M. M., and Rahman, S. M. (2023). Microplastics pollution: A brief review of its source and abundance in different aquatic ecosystems. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 9: 100215.

23. Burns, E. E., and Boxall, A. B. A. (2018). Microplastics in the aquatic environment: Evidence for or against adverse impacts and major knowledge gaps. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 37(11): 2776-2796.

24. Bond, T., Ferrandiz-Mas, V., Felipe-Sotelo, M., and van Sebille, E. (2018). The occurrence and degradation of aquatic plastic litter based on polymer physicochemical properties: A review. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 48(7-9): 685-722.

25. Mueller, R.-J. (2006). Biological degradation of synthetic polyesters—enzymes as potential catalysts for polyester recycling. Process Biochemistry, 41(10): 2124-2128.

26. Ren, L., Men, L., Zhang, Z., Guan, F., Tian, J., Wang, B., Wang, J., Zhang, Y., and Zhang, W. (2019). Biodegradation of polyethylene by Enterobacter sp. D1 from the guts of wax moth Galleria mellonella. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(11): 1941.

27. Jumaah, O. S. (2017). Screening of plastic degrading bacteria from dumped soil area. IOSR Journal of Environmental Science, Toxicology and Food Technology, 11(05): 93-98.

28. Ahmed, T., Shahid, M., Azeem, F., Rasul, I., Shah, A. A., Noman, M., Hameed, A., Manzoor, N., Manzoor, I., and Muhammad, S. (2018). Biodegradation of plastics: Current scenario and future prospects for environmental safety. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 25(8): 7287-7298.

29. Praveena, S. M., Hisham, M. A. F. I., and Nafisyah, A. L. (2023). Microplastics pollution in agricultural farms soils: Preliminary findings from tropical environment (Klang Valley, Malaysia). Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 195(6): 650.

30. Hashim, H. A., Jamian, A., Yusuf, N. R., Naidu, S. Y., Paad, D. M., and Ishak, K. M. (2023). Evaluation of deposited atmospheric microplastic characteristic within Malaysia cities airshed. Chemical Engineering Transactions, 106: 1105-1110.

31. Tan, E., and Mohd Zanuri, N. B. (2023). Abundance and distribution of microplastics in tropical estuarine mangrove areas around Penang, Malaysia. Frontiers in Marine Science, 10: 1148804.

32. Zaki, M. R. M., Ying, P. X., Zainuddin, A. H., Razak, M. R., and Aris, A. Z. (2021). Occurrence, abundance, and distribution of microplastics pollution: An evidence in surface tropical water of Klang River Estuary, Malaysia. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 43(9): 3733-3748.

33. Anuar, S. T., Abdullah, N. S., Yahya, N. K. E. M., Chin, T. T., Yusof, K. M. K. K., Mohamad, Y., Azmi, A. A., Jaafar, M., Mohamad, N., Khalik, W. M. A. W. M., and Ibrahim, Y. S. (2023). A multidimensional approach for microplastics monitoring in two major tropical river basins, Malaysia. Environmental Research, 227: 115717.

34. Barasarathi, J., P., A., C.U., E., and S.H., F. (2014). Microplastic abundance in selected mangrove forest in malaysia. Proceeding of The ASEAN Conference on Science and Technology 2014: pp. 18-20.

35. Hee, Y. Y., Hanif, N. M., Weston, K., Latif, M. T., Suratman, S., Rusli, M. U., and Mayes, A. G. (2023). Atmospheric microplastic transport and deposition to urban and pristine tropical locations in Southeast Asia. Science of The Total Environment, 902: 166153.

36. Afiq Daniel Azmi, M., Yasin, N. L. N. M., Norruwaida, J., Hasnatul, A. H., Dewika, M., and Sara, Y. Y. (2023). Analysis of suspended atmospheric microplastics size at different elevation in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 1144(1): 012009.

37. Zainuddin, A. H., Aris, A. Z., Zaki, M. R. M., Yusoff, F. M., and Wee, S. Y. (2022). Occurrence, potential sources and ecological risk estimation of microplastic towards coastal and estuarine zones in Malaysia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 174: 113282.

38. Sharijan, S., Azman, S., and Mohd Said, M. I. (2018). Microplastics pollution in Skudai and Tebrau River, Malaysia. Proceedings of 7th International Graduate Conference, Conference of Engineering, Science and Humanities, pp. 16-18

39. Khalik, W. M. A. W. M., Ibrahim, Y. S., Tuan Anuar, S., Govindasamy, S., and Baharuddin, N. F. (2018). Microplastics analysis in Malaysian marine waters: A field study of Kuala Nerus and Kuantan. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 135: 451-457.

40. Saipolbahri, N., Anak Bitlus, M. L., Ismail, N. A., Fauzi, N. M., and Subki, N. S. (2020). Determination of microplastics in surface water and sediment of Kelantan Bay. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 549(1): 012059.

41. Taha, Z. D., Md Amin, R., Anuar, S. T., Nasser, A. A. A., and Sohaimi, E. S. (2021). Microplastics in seawater and zooplankton: A case study from Terengganu estuary and offshore waters, Malaysia. Science of the Total Environment, 786: 147466

42. Yang Hwi, T., Ibrahim, Y. S., and Khalik, W. M. A. W. M. (2020). Microplastic abundance, distribution, and composition in Sungai Dungun, Terengganu, Malaysia. Sains Malaysiana, 49(7): 1479-1490.

43. Yusof, K. M. K. K., Anuar, S. T., Mohamad, Y., Jaafar, M., Mohamad, N., Bachok, Z., Mohamad, N., AND Ibrahim, Y. S. (2023). First evidence of microplastic pollution in the surface water of Malaysian Marine Park Islands, South China Sea during COVID-19. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 194: 115268.

44. Ibrahim, Y. S., Hamzah, S. R., Khalik, W. M. A. W. M., Ku Yusof, K. M. K., and Anuar, S. T. (2021). Spatiotemporal microplastic occurrence study of Setiu Wetland, South China Sea. Science of The Total Environment, 788: 147809.

45. Chenappan, N. K., Ibrahim, Y. S., Anuar, S. T., Yusof, K. M. K. K., Jaafar, M., Ahamad, F., Sulaiman, W. Z. W., and Mohamad, N. (2024). Quantification and characterization of airborne microplastics in the coastal area of Terengganu, Malaysia. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 196(3): 1-15.

46. Liong, R. M. Y., Hadibarata, T., Yuniarto, A., Tang, K. H. D., and Khamidun, M. H. (2021). Microplastic occurrence in the water and sediment of Miri River Estuary, Borneo Island. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution, 232(8).

47. Alexander Tampang, A. M., and Mohan Viswanathan, P. (2022). Occurrence, distribution and sources of microplastics in beach sediments of Miri Coast, NW Borneo. Chemosphere, 305: 135368.

48. Zahari, N. Z., Vincent, S. D., Cleophas, F. N., Budin, K., and Sabullah, M. K. (2023). Abundance, distribution, and characterization of microplastics on two recreational beaches in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. Water (Switzerland), 15(15): 2681.

49. De-la-Torre, G. E. (2020). Microplastics: an emerging threat to food security and human health. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 57(5):1601-1608.

50. Sulaiman, R. N. R., Bakar, A. A., Ngadi, N., Kahar, I. N. S., Nordin, A. H., Ikram, M., and Nabgan, W. (2023). Microplastics in Malaysia’s aquatic environment: Current overview and future perspectives. Global Challenges, 7(8): 2300047.

51. Foo, Y. H., Ratnam, S., Lim, E. V., Abdullah, M., Molenaar, V. J., Shau Hwai, A. T., Zhang, S., Li, H., and Mohd Zanuri, N. B. (2022). Microplastic ingestion by commercial marine fish from the seawater of Northwest Peninsular Malaysia. PeerJ, 10: e13181.

52. Ratnam, S., and Mohd Zanuri, N. B. (2022). Microplastic ingestion of blood cockles (Tegillarca granosa) in Kuala Juru, Pulau Pinang. Journal of Survey in Fisheries Sciences, 9(1): 97-115.

53. Usman, S., Abdull Razis, A. F., Shaari, K., Amal, M. N. A., Saad, M. Z., Mat Isa, N., ... and Ibrahim, M. A. (2020). Microplastics pollution as an invisible potential threat to food safety and security, policy challenges and the way forward. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(24): 9591.

54. Habib, S., Iruthayam, A., Shukor, M. Y. A., Alias, S. A., Smykla, J., and Yasid, N. A. (2020). Biodeterioration of untreated polypropylene microplastic particles by Antarctic bacteria. Polymers, 12(11): 2616.

55. Kwon, J. H., Kim, J. W., Pham, T. D., Tarafdar, A., Hong, S., Chun, S. H., Lee, S. H., Kang, D. Y., Kim, J. Y., Kim, S. Bin, and Jung, J. (2020). Microplastics in food: A review on analytical methods and challenges. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17 (18): 1-23.

56. Yu, Q., Hu, X., Yang, B., Zhang, G., Wang, J., and Ling, W. (2020). Distribution, abundance and risks of microplastics in the environment. Chemosphere, 249: 126059.

57. Bouwmeester, H., C. H. Hollman, P., and J. B. Peters, R. (2015). Potential health impact of environmentally released micro- and nanoplastics in the human food production chain: Experiences from nanotoxicology. Environmental Science & Technology, 49(15): 8932-8947.

58. Abbasi, S., Moore, F., and Keshavarzi, B. (2021). PET-microplastics as a vector for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a simulated plant rhizosphere zone. Environmental Technology and Innovation, 21: 101370.

59. Ragusa, A., Svelato, A., Santacroce, C., Catalano, P., Notarstefano, V., Carnevali, O., Papa, F., Rongioletti, M. C. A., Baiocco, F., Draghi, S., D’Amore, E., Rinaldo, D., Matta, M., and Giorgini, E. (2021). Plasticenta: First evidence of microplastics in human placenta. Environment International, 146: 106274.

60. Lee, Y., Cho, J., Sohn, J., and Kim, C. (2023). Health effects of microplastic exposures: Current issues and perspectives in South Korea. Yonsei Medical Journal, 64(5): 301-308.

61. Forte, M., Iachetta, G., Tussellino, M., Carotenuto, R., Prisco, M., De Falco, M., Laforgia, V., and Valiante, S. (2016). Polystyrene nanoparticles internalization in human gastric adenocarcinoma cells. Toxicology in Vitro, 31: 126-136.

62. Liu, S., Wang, Z., Xiang, Q., Wu, B., Lv, W., and Xu, S. (2022). A comparative study in healthy and diabetic mice followed the exposure of polystyrene microplastics: Differential lipid metabolism and inflammation reaction. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 244: 114031.

63. Détrée, C., and Gallardo-Escárate, C. (2018). Single and repetitive microplastics exposures induce immune system modulation and homeostasis alteration in the edible mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Fish and Shellfish Immunology, 83: 52-60.

64. Lin, S., Zhang, H., Wang, C., Su, X. L., Song, Y., Wu, P., Yang, Z., Wong, M. H., Cai, Z., and Zheng, C. (2022). Metabolomics reveal nanoplastic-induced mitochondrial damage in human liver and lung cells. Environmental Science and Technology, 56(17): 12483-12493.

65. Shan, S., Zhang, Y., Zhao, H., Zeng, T., and Zhao, X. (2022). Polystyrene nanoplastics penetrate across the blood-brain barrier and induce activation of microglia in the brain of mice. Chemosphere, 298: 134261.

66. Idrus, F. A., Roslan, N. S., and Harith, M. N. (2022). Occurrence of macro- and microplastics on Pasir Pandak Beach, Sarawak, Malaysia. Jurnal Ilmiah Perikanan Dan Kelautan, 14(2): 214-230.

67. Karami, A., Golieskardi, A., Choo, C. K., Romano, N., Ho, Y. Bin, and Salamatinia, B. (2017). A high-performance protocol for extraction of microplastics in fish. Science of the Total Environment, 578: 485-494.

68. Matupang, D. M., Zulkifli, H. I., Arnold, J., Lazim, A. M., Ghaffar, M. A., and Musa, S. M. (2023). Tropical sharks feasting on and swimming through microplastics: First evidence from Malaysia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 189: 114762.

69. Jaafar, N., Azfaralariff, A., Musa, S. M., Mohamed, M., Yusoff, A. H., and Lazim, A. M. (2021). Occurrence, distribution and characteristics of microplastics in gastrointestinal tract and gills of commercial marine fish from Malaysia. Science of the Total Environment, 799: 149457.

70. Ibrahim, Y. S., Azmi, A. A., Abdul Shukor, S., Anuar, S. T., and Abdullah, S. A. (2016). Microplastics Ingestion by Scapharca cornea at Setiu Wetland, Terengganu, Malaysia. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 24(6): 2129-2136.

71. Suardy, N. H., Tahrim, N. A., and Ramli, S. (2020). Analysis and characterization of microplastic from personal care products and surface water in Bangi, Selangor. Sains Malaysiana, 49(9): 2237-2249.

72. Praveena, S. M., Shaifuddin, S. N. M., and Akizuki, S. (2018). Exploration of microplastics from personal care and cosmetic products and its estimated emissions to marine environment: An Evidence from Malaysia. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 136: 135-140.

73. Karbalaei, S., Golieskardi, A., Watt, D. U., Boiret, M., Hanachi, P., Walker, T. R., and Karami, A. (2020). Analysis and inorganic composition of microplastics in commercial Malaysian fish meals. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 150: 110687.

74. Praveena, S. M., Shamsul Ariffin, N. I., and Nafisyah, A. L. (2022). Microplastics in Malaysian bottled water brands: Occurrence and potential human exposure. Environmental Pollution, 315: 120494.

75. Ibrahim, Y. Y. S., Rathnam, R. R., and Anuar, S. (2017). Isolation and characterisation of microplastic abundance in Lates calcarifer from Setiu Wetlands, Malaysia. Malaysia Journal of Analytical Science, 21(5): 1054-1064.

76. Jannah, M., Husin, M., Mazlan, N., Shalom, J., Shirwan, M., and Sani, A. (2021). Evaluation of microplastics ingested by sea cucumber Stichopus horrens in Pulau Pangkor, Perak, Malaysia. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 28: 61592-61600.

77. Karami, A., Golieskardi, A., Ho, Y. Bin, Larat, V., and Salamatinia, B. (2017). microplastics in eviscerated flesh and excised organs of dried fish. Scientific Reports, 7(1): 5473.

78. Karami, A., Golieskardi, A., Choo, C. K., Larat, V., Karbalaei, S., and Salamatinia, B. (2018). Microplastic and mesoplastic contamination in canned sardines and sprats. Science of the Total Environment, 612: 1380-1386.

79. Ibrahim, Y. S., Tuan Anuar, S., Azmi, A. A., Wan Mohd Khalik, W. M. A., Lehata, S., Hamzah, S. R., Ismail, D., Ma, Z. F., Dzulkarnaen, A., Zakaria, Z., Mustaffa, N., Tuan Sharif, S. E., and Lee, Y. Y. (2021). Detection of microplastics in human colectomy specimens. JGH Open, 5(1): 116-121.

80. Anuar, S. T., Altarawnah, R. S., Mohd Ali, A. A., Lee, B. Q., Khalik, W. M. A. W. M., Yusof, K. M. K. K., and Ibrahim, Y. S. (2022). Utilizing pyrolysis–gas chromatography/mass spectrometry for monitoring and analytical characterization of microplastics in polychaete worms. Polymers, 14(15): 3054.

81. Silva, A. B., Bastos, A. S., Justino, C. I. L., da Costa, J. P., Duarte, A. C., and Rocha-Santos, T. A. P. (2018). Microplastics in the environment: Challenges in analytical chemistry - a review. Analytica Chimica Acta, 1017: 1-19.

82. Huang, Z., Hu, B., and Wang, H. (2023). Analytical methods for microplastics in the environment: A review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 21(1): 383-401.

83. Fu, W., Min, J., Jiang, W., Li, Y., and Zhang, W. (2020). Separation, characterization and identification of microplastics and nanoplastics in the environment. Science of the Total Environment, 721: 137561.

84. Song, Y. K., Hong, S. H., Jang, M., Han, G. M., Rani, M., Lee, J., and Shim, W. J. (2015). A comparison of microscopic and spectroscopic identification methods for analysis of microplastics in environmental samples. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 93(1-2): 202-209.

85. Matsuguma, Y., Takada, H., Kumata, H., Kanke, H., Sakurai, S., Suzuki, T., Itoh, M., Okazaki, Y., Boonyatumanond, R., Zakaria, M. P., Weerts, S., and Newman, B. (2017). Microplastics in sediment cores from Asia and Africa as indicators of temporal trends in plastic pollution. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 73(2): 230-239.

86. Karami, A., Golieskardi, A., Keong Choo, C., Larat, V., Galloway, T. S., and Salamatinia, B. (2017). The presence of microplastics in commercial salts from different countries. Scientific Reports, 7: 46173.

87. Zhang, Y., Zhang, M., & Fan, Y. (2023). Assessment of microplastics using microfluidic approach. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 45(3): 1045-1052.

88. Tse, Y. T., Lo, H. S., Chan, S. M. N., and Sze, E. T. P. (2022). Flow cytometry as a rapid alternative to quantify small microplastics in environmental water samples. Water, 14(9): 1436.

89. Jin, N., Song, Y., Ma, R., Li, J., Li, G., and Zhang, D. (2022). Characterization and identification of microplastics using Raman spectroscopy coupled with multivariate analysis. Analytica Chimica Acta, 1197: 339519.